Domestic Animals
INTRODUCTION
Animal Husbandry, breeding, feeding, and management of animals, or livestock, for the production of food, fibre, work, and pleasure. Animals furnish more than one-fourth of the world’s total value of agricultural products. They supply a much higher proportion of human food in the developed countries than elsewhere. Most domesticated animals have multiple uses; for example, animals kept primarily for work also supply milk, meat, and clothing materials. The animals and their uses, however, are closely associated with the culture and experience of the people who care for them. Environmental influences such as climate also play an important role in the domestication and use of animals. Water buffalo are used as draft animals to pull wagons and farm equipment in southern Asia, where they are adapted to the high temperature and humidity, while horses, which thrive in moderate climates, were the principal draft animals in the temperate regions until they were replaced by tractors. Cattle from India that are acclimatized to hot and humid conditions are prevalent in the southern United States because they are better adapted to the climate of the region than European cattle. Domesticated animals used primarily for work, transport, and leisure are widely distributed. They include the horse, mule, donkey (see Ass), ox, buffalo and camel.
HORSE
The domestic horse is classified as Equus caballus. Horse, large land mammal notable for its speed, strength, and endurance. Horses are members of the Equidae family. The horse is extremely well adapted to travelling long distances with great efficiency and to surviving on a diet of nutrient-poor, high-fibre grasses. The horse is an intensely social animal. The horse has ability to bond with and obey a human trainer. Horses were domesticated in Eurasia around 6,000 years ago. Throughout much of human history, they have provided humans with mobility and have served in agriculture, warfare, and sport. As a result of deliberate breeding by humans, horses display a remarkable variation in size, body shape, and coat colour. The horse has a hairy coat and a long mane and tail. Horses have the largest eyes of any land mammal. The large eyes enable horses to see almost directly behind themselves, even while facing forward. Their night vision is excellent. Horses have powerful teeth and jaws to grind and break down plant fibres. Horses can close their wide nostrils against dusty winds, and they can move their large ears to detect sounds from various directions. By “standing on its toes,” the horse has a very long leg for an animal of its size, but also a very light leg, since toes are lightweight structures, carrying a minimum of bone and tendon and no muscle at all. A long leg produces a long stride, and a light leg allows the horse to swing its limbs back and forth quickly with a minimal expenditure of energy. The top speed of the horse is about 70 km/h (45 mph).Horses reach sexual maturity at about one and a half years. The gestational period in the horse averages 11 months.Horse breeds are often divided into three broad classes: light horses, heavy horses, and ponies. • Light horses include saddle horses, such as thoroughbreds, quarter horses, and Arabians; and light harness horses.• Heavy horses include draft horses and coach horses. Coach horses were bred for pulling large carriages and for light farm work.• Ponies are usually defined as any horse that stands less than 14.5 hands high. Ponies have a reputation for being smart and wily.Throughout the Middle Ages (around the 5th century to the 15th century ad) and even until modern times, the horse played a pivotal role in expanding trade, in exploring new lands, and in providing the motive power for farm work. Today most horses are pleasure and sport animals. Popular activities on horseback include trail riding and competition in horse shows and rodeo events. Horses are still used for draft in many countries of the world. They are also used for controlling other types of animals, for carrying packs, and for riding for leisure and sport. The world population of horses is estimated at about 56 million; approximately half are in North and South America and Africa, and half in Asia and Europe. Many horses that are lightly worked or not worked at all thrive without any difficulty on grasses found in pastures, and without any special food. All horses need continual access to fresh water and mineral salt blocks that provide needed trace minerals in their diet. Working horses typically need several quarts of grain a day in addition to hay.
MULE
Mule, hybrid offspring of the jackass (male ass) and the mare, much used and valued in many parts of the world as a beast of burden. The head, ears, croup, and tail resemble those of the ass, but in bulk and stature the mule resembles the horse, and seems to excel both its parents in sagacity, muscular endurance, surefootedness, and length of life. The hinny is the hybrid offspring of the jenny (female ass) and the stallion (male horse). It has a bushier tail and a heavier body than the mule and is by nature a more tractable animal. Male mules are generally sterile, but sterility is not a necessary consequence of hybridization. Female mules have been successfully crossed with horses or asses to produce foals.
CATTLE
Cattle, common term for the domesticated herbivorous mammals that constitute the genus Bos, of the family Bovidae, and that are of great importance to humans because of the meat, milk, leather, glue, gelatin, and other items of commerce they yield. It is believed that cattle were domesticated about 8,500 years ago in southeastern Europe, with Southeast Asia a probable second centre of domestication. B. taurus, which originated in Europe and includes most modern breeds of dairy and beef cattle. The ox belongs to the family Bovidae in the order Artiodactyla. The most common species is classified as Bos taurus. Ox, plural, oxen, domesticated cow or bull used for agricultural work as a draft animal (an animal that pulls a cart or wagon) or as a pack animal (an animal that carries cargo on its back). Oxen have a body length of about 2.5 to 3.5 m (about 8 to 12 ft), with a shoulder height of about 90 to 110 cm (about 36 to 44 in). They weigh about 450 to 1000 kg (about 990 to 2200 lb). An ox is distinguished by short hair and smooth horns that generally curve out and up, sometimes extending up to 61 cm (24 in). Male oxen are typically castrated (sexually neutered by the removal of testes) to produce a larger, stronger, and more docile animal. Oxen hauled carts loaded with crops from the fields to barns and to markets, pulled ploughs in fields, and turned wheels that lifted water from wells and canals. The ox also was used to pack personal property. So essential was the ox to the survival of humans that it was worshiped by some early religions. For thousands of years, the ox remained the primary draft animal on farms in most of the world. Unlike a horse or a mule, an ox pulled wagons through mud and swam across streams. The zebu, or Brahman, cattle, B. indicus, were domesticated in southern Asia about the same time or a little later. Zebu, common name for several breeds of domesticated humped cattle native to southern Asia. A large, muscular hump on the back above the shoulders is its most conspicuous characteristic. Most zebus have short horns, pendulous ears, and huge dewlaps. Cattle are used extensively in Africa and Asia as beasts of burden and for their milk and flesh. White bulls are regarded as sacred by certain sects of Hindus; hence, the entire species is known in some parts of the world. Zebu is highly resistant to heat and tropical diseases. Early records indicate that cattle were used for draft, milk, sacrifice, and, in some instances, for meat and sport. Today about 274 important recognized breeds exist, and many other varieties and types that could be described have not attained breed status. Dairy cattle are those breeds that have been developed primarily to produce milk. Among the major dairy breeds of B. indicus found primarily in India are the Gir, Hariana, Red Sindhi, Sahiwal, and Tharparker. Dairy Farming, the branch of agriculture concerned with production and use of milk and milk products. Dairy products include whole fluid milk, low-fat fluid milk, flavoured milk, whole and non-fat dry milk, butter, cheese, evaporated and condensed milk, frozen dairy products, and fermented products such as sour cream and yogurt.
BUFFALO
Buffalo belong to the family Bovidae, subfamily Bovinae. The Asian buffalo is classified as Bubalus bubalis. Buffalo, wild or domesticated oxen native to Asia and Africa. Like domestic cattle and some other artiodactyl mammals, buffalo are cud chewing and have cloven hooves and permanent horns, but they are much larger and more powerful than cattle. The Asian, or water, buffalo is a native of India and other parts of Asia. Measuring up to 1.8 m (6 ft) at the shoulder, the water buffalo has thick horns that sweep in an outward curve back toward the shoulders and may extend up to 1.2 m (3.9 ft) from tip to tip. Broad, splayed feet enable the animal to live in a marshy habitat. The water buffalo has short, stiff, scanty hair, and a large portion of the hide is bare and glossy. In the wild, the water buffalo is dangerous if aroused. The animal has been domesticated, however, and has been used as a draft animal since ancient times.
FOWL
Fowl belong to the order Galliformes. The common domestic fowl, or chicken, belongs to the family Phasianidae and is classified as Gallus gallus. Fowl, term means any bird, which is edible. In modern usage the word usually is restricted to the common domestic chicken. In poultry markets, fowl commonly means a full-grown female bird. Domestic fowl probably originated in Southeast Asia. Young birds of both sexes, such as broilers and fryers, are called chickens. On poultry farms, male chickens are called roosters or cocks; females, especially those more than a year old, are called hens; females less than a year old are called pullets; very young chickens of either sex are called chicks; and castrated males are called capons. The domestic fowl is adapted for living on the ground, where it finds its natural foods, consisting chiefly of worms, insects, seeds, and green stuff. The feet, usually four-toed are designed for scratching the earth. The large, heavy body and short wings make most breeds incapable of flying except for short distances. The crop is large and the gizzard strongly muscular. In adults of both sexes the head is decorated with wattles and a naked, fleshy crest, called the comb, which is more prominent in the male and is variously shaped in the different breeds and varieties. Plumage of various fowl ranges in colour through white, grey, yellow, blue, red, brown, and black. A group of breeds developed in a single country or geographical area is often called a class. In habit, chickens are strictly diurnal, highly gregarious, and polygamous; cocks of the game breeds are especially noted for their courage and pugnacity with rivals. The high fecundity of the species is an important characteristic, especially because the eggs as well as the meat are prized as food. Female chickens lay their eggs on the ground, in tall grass or weeds. The incubation period is approximately three weeks. The chicks, when hatched, they are not naked but covered with down and are immediately able to run around. Although they are able to feed themselves, newly hatched chicks can survive about a week without eating, subsisting on egg yolk that is included in the abdomen.
GOAT
Goats belong to the family Bovidae. They make up the genus Capra. The domestic goats classified as Capra hircus. Goat, common name for any of eight species of cloven-hoofed, horned mammals closely related to the sheep. The two differ in that the goat's tail is shorter and the hollow horns are long and directed upward, backward, and outward, while those of the sheep are spirally twisted. The male goats have beards, unlike sheep, and differ further by the characteristic strong odour they give off in the rutting season. The female goat, or doe, which has smaller horns than the male, in ordinary usage is often termed goat or nanny goat. The young are called kids. The male goat is called buck, or, colloquially, billy goat. Goats are nomadic and are generally found in mountainous habitats. They are agile animals. Goats are gregarious, except for old bucks, which tend to live by themselves and which serve sometimes as sentinels or scouts on the outer edges of herds. The goat feeds on greens in pastures and on the branches and leaves of shrubbery. It breeds in the fall, generally between October and December. The gestation period is five months or, in some species, a few weeks longer. Two kids are usually produced at birth. They are soon able to move with the herd and mature sexually at two to five years. A number of breeds of goat are raised domestically throughout the world. These animals probably descended from the bezoar goat. The goat is used for meat, as a milk producer, as a pet, and as a beast of burden. Many parts of the animal are economically valuable for a variety of purposes, such as the skins for leather and the pelts for rugs and robes. One variety of domestic goat, important for its commercial value, is the Angora. The most valuable Angora is covered, except for the face and the legs below the knees, with long, fine, silky hair called mohair. The brilliant, transparent texture of mohair has made it a valued material. The Kashmir goat, a small animal native to the Jammu and Kashmir region of India and Pakistan, is the source of fine wool cashmere. Goat's milk compares favourably in nutritive value with cow's milk and is more easily digested by many people. It is used extensively in making cheeses.
SHEEP
Sheep belong to the suborder Ruminantia of the order Artiodactyla. They make up the genus Ovis in the family Bovidae. The domesticated sheep is classified as Ovis aries. Sheep is the most widely distributed kind of domestic animal, found in nearly all countries. Sheep were probably domesticated about 11,000 years ago in what is now northern Iraq. Sheeps are even-toed, hoofed animals. They are cud-chewing animals with the upper incisor teeth missing. They have paired, hollow, horns. The horns of the adult male, or ram, are massive and spirally curved. The horns of the adult female, or ewe, are short and only slightly curved. Sheep typically have a long, fairly narrow muzzle and pointed ears. The length of the head and body averages about 1.5 m (about 5 ft), with a short tail, and an adult may weigh 75 to 200 kg (165 to 440 lb). The female bears up to three young after a gestation period of about 150 days. Sheep live as long as 20 years. Besides providing pelts and wool for clothing and carpets, meat in the form of lamb and mutton, and milk for drinking and cheese making, sheep are used to a limited extent as pack animals, and the wild species are hunted as game. Several distinct types and more than 800 breeds of domesticated sheep have been developed. The breeds are adapted to environments that range from desert to tropical condition. Sheep bred for their fine wool account for nearly half the world sheep population. They are adapted to semiarid conditions and are characterized as medium in size, with the ability to produce large amounts of wool fibres 20 micrometers or less in diameter. Many attempts have been made to obtain the superior wool characteristics of fine-wool breeds with the meat-producing abilities of other breeds. Fat tailed sheep are kept primarily for their milk-producing ability, which is higher than that of other types; their wool, however, is coarse and long and is used primarily for making carpets. Fat-tailed sheep are found mainly in the extremely arid regions. Domesticated sheep on the whole are much more woolly than their wild allies. Sheep are used for wool, meat (mutton and lamb), and to a small extent for milk. Sheep are commonly divided into three types based on whether their wool is fine, medium, or coarse. Perhaps the first animals to be used in husbandry.
HOG
Hogs belong to the family Suidae of the suborder Bunodontia in the order Artiodactyla. They are classified in the genus Sus. The Southeast Asian wild swine as Sus vittatus. Hog is extensively raised in almost every part of the world as a food animal. Hogs belong to the order of even-toed hoofed animals. They are further classified into the suborder of animals with 44 teeth, including two enlarged canines in each jaw that grow upward and outward to form tusks. The terms hog, swine, and pig are often used interchangeably for these animals. They were first domesticated in China about 9000 years ago, and later in Europe. The adult domestic swine has a heavy, rounded body; a comparatively long, flexible snout; short legs with cloven hooves; and a short tail. The thick but sensitive skin is partly covered with coarse bristles and exhibits a wide range of colour patterns. Like all swine, domestic hogs are quick-footed, intelligent animals. Well adapted for the production of meat because they grow and mature rapidly, hogs have a short gestation period of about 114 days, and they produce large numbers of young each time they give birth. They are omnivorous and can scavenge a wide range of foods—perhaps one of the reasons they were first domesticated. As food sources, they convert cereal grains and legumes such as soybeans into meat. Other than meat, products from swine include leather (pigskin) for luggage and gloves, and bristles for brushes. For centuries they have also been used as a primary source of edible fat. An estimated 90 breeds are recognized today, in addition to more than 200 varieties. The major breeds also differ in growth rate, the number of young produced, mature body size, and ability to graze. Swine are reared under more intensive conditions than cattle and sheep. Newborn pigs are highly sensitive to cold. In addition, pigs have no sweat glands, so larger pigs must have facilities for keeping cool in warm environments. Hogs are adapted to temperate and semitropical climates and are found in many different areas of the world.
CONCERNS
The major concern of animal husbandry today is the extent to which production can be maintained as the human population increases. The goal of research has been to increase the efficiency of the production of animal products by genetic selection and genetic engineering. Research is also being directed toward the development of animal strains in areas deficient in protein. Also at issue are special additives, including hormones, antibiotics, vitamins, and other substances used to increase growth or productivity. The two most controversial growth additives are the hormone diethylstilbestrol (DES) and antibiotics. DES is now banned because in high doses it was found to be capable of causing cancer. Scientists who advocate the banning of antibiotics argue that resistant strains of bacteria in animals might transfer their resistance to bacteria that infect humans. Scientists have recently expressed concern that the focus on producing specialized and fewer breeds has led to diminished biodiversity among livestock, as well as threatened the extinction of remaining breeds that, although currently unpopular, might have traits needed in the future. Recently, several organizations have established conservation programs for threatened domestic breeds of cattle, sheep, horses, and swine. These programs will not only ensure survival of these breeds, but also provide invaluable genetic resources for currently popular breeds. Eventually the physiological limits of all domestic animals may prevent further increases in yield. If the human population continues to expand and food supplies become scarcer, the proportion of food that can be used to feed animals will then decrease, and animal products will be in shorter supply and more expensive.
